According to the dictionary, "vaccination" means "the introduction into humans or domestic animals of microorganisms that have previously been treated to make them harmless for the purpose of inducing the development of immunity." The most famous creator of a vaccine was Louis Pasteur, who created an anthrax vaccine, saving the economy of France. Lesser-known scientist Edward Jenner is also famous in the field of vaccines. In fact, he created the very first, a vaccine for smallpox. He observed that the milkmaids would contract "cowpox," get better and NEVER contract smallpox. Jenner's theory was that cowpox was simply a weaker form of smallpox and if one was to be inoculated with cowpox, the body would develop and immunity to smallpox. It was certainly a revolutionary idea, considering the fact that he lived in the 1700s. Nothing like that had ever been proposed - the very idea that the body could be made "immune," was mind-reeling in that period. Jenner was determined to test his idea. He infected a poor, eight year old boy with cowpox. The bacteria was weak and he recovered. Then Jenner did something brash. He injected the boy with smallpox. Thank God the kid didn't contract it because he had developed an immunity, but imagine what would have happened if he would have died? Yes, this experiment was a success. Did that justify putting a little eight year old boy in danger? What if the smallpox had killed him? Did the end justify the means? The smallpox vaccine saved thousands of lives. Does that justify putting one life in danger?
In my opinion, it's never acceptable to breach moral, ethical, or legal boundaries to achieve some perceived greater good. Jenner couldn't have been sure of the outcome of his experiment so he was not justified in endangering someone's life. Of course, we don't know the entire situation. I'm merely assuming we had a medical tycoon tricking an ignorant eight year old farm boy who didn't fully understand the situation into becoming a medical victim. On the off chance that the eight year old fully understood the situation, it was still probably wrong given that an eight year old doesn't have the brain capacity to understand the gravity of such a decision. It was wrong of such a brilliant man to take advantage of a little's boy's ignorance. Furthermore, it was wrong of the boy's parents not to protect him. They were humble townspeople, they had to have at least heard of smallpox! There have been thousands upon thousands of cruel, failed experiments on humans in the interest of "medicine." This is an oxymoron at best considering the profession of a doctor is interested in proliferating human life, not putting it in harm's way. Although God allowed some good to come out of the situation as he so often does, Jenner was NOT justified in any way shape or form. The boy was the first organism Jenner tested his theory on. He did not even bother to test it on an animal first! This is inexcusable. Today's scientists are held to higher standards and have moral and ethical codes that they are required to follow in their experiments. Still, on occasion we see situations like this one that should be obliterated.
Wednesday, May 25, 2011
Tuesday, May 24, 2011
Vocab Chapter 40
Disease - any change, other than an injury that disrupts the normal functions of the body
Pathogens - disease causing agent, such as a bacterium or fungus
Germ theory of disease - idea that infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms or germs
Koch's Postulates - series of guidelines used to identify the microorganisms that causes a specific disease
Vectors - animal that carries disease causing organisms from person to person
Antibiotics - specialized protein that helps destroy disease causing organisms
Inflammatory response - nonspecific defense reaction to tissue damage caused by injury or infection
Fever - elevated body temperature that occurs in response to infection
Interferons - one of a group of proteins that help cells resist viral infection
Immune Response - the body's specific defenses that attack a disease causing agent
Vaccination - injection of a weakened or mild form of a pathogen to produce immunity
Active Immunity - immunity produced by a vaccine so called because the body has the ability to mount an active immune response against the pathogen
Allergies - overreaction of the immune system that results when antigens bind to mast cells
Pathogens - disease causing agent, such as a bacterium or fungus
Germ theory of disease - idea that infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms or germs
Koch's Postulates - series of guidelines used to identify the microorganisms that causes a specific disease
Vectors - animal that carries disease causing organisms from person to person
Antibiotics - specialized protein that helps destroy disease causing organisms
Inflammatory response - nonspecific defense reaction to tissue damage caused by injury or infection
Fever - elevated body temperature that occurs in response to infection
Interferons - one of a group of proteins that help cells resist viral infection
Immune Response - the body's specific defenses that attack a disease causing agent
Vaccination - injection of a weakened or mild form of a pathogen to produce immunity
Active Immunity - immunity produced by a vaccine so called because the body has the ability to mount an active immune response against the pathogen
Allergies - overreaction of the immune system that results when antigens bind to mast cells
Chapter 40 Assesment
1-6, 10, 11-12, 15, 22, 25, 28, 36
1) a
2) c
3) b
4) d
5)a
6) d
10) c
11) That infectious diseases are caused by micro-organisms called germs.
12) If a pathogen can be identified then perhaps it can be prevented or cured.
15) Wash your hands!
22) The antibodies in your system die out
25) One is infected with cancer-like properties, one is harmless and stagnant.
28) Did the end justify the means? Perhaps... Of course, we don't know the entire situation.
36) Heat is used to kill germs.
1) a
2) c
3) b
4) d
5)a
6) d
10) c
11) That infectious diseases are caused by micro-organisms called germs.
12) If a pathogen can be identified then perhaps it can be prevented or cured.
15) Wash your hands!
22) The antibodies in your system die out
25) One is infected with cancer-like properties, one is harmless and stagnant.
28) Did the end justify the means? Perhaps... Of course, we don't know the entire situation.
36) Heat is used to kill germs.
Chapter 40
Some diseases are inherited. Others are caused by materials in the environment. Still others are produced by organisms such as bacteria and fungi.
Some infectious diseases are spread from one person to another through coughing, sneezing or physical contact. Other infectious disease are spread through contaminated water or food. Still others are spread by infected animals.
Your body's most important nonspecific defense is the skin.
The inflammatory response is a nonspecific defense reaction to tissue damage caused by injury or infection.
Once the body has been exposed to a pathogen, millions of memory B and T cells remain capable of producing specific antibodies to that pathogen.
When the immune system makes a mistake and attacks the body's own cells, ti produces an autoimmune disease.
Cancers begin when something goes wrong with the controls that normally regulate cell growth and division.
Treatments for cancer fall into three general categories; surgery, radiation, therapy and drug therapy.
Some infectious diseases are spread from one person to another through coughing, sneezing or physical contact. Other infectious disease are spread through contaminated water or food. Still others are spread by infected animals.
Your body's most important nonspecific defense is the skin.
The inflammatory response is a nonspecific defense reaction to tissue damage caused by injury or infection.
Once the body has been exposed to a pathogen, millions of memory B and T cells remain capable of producing specific antibodies to that pathogen.
When the immune system makes a mistake and attacks the body's own cells, ti produces an autoimmune disease.
Cancers begin when something goes wrong with the controls that normally regulate cell growth and division.
Treatments for cancer fall into three general categories; surgery, radiation, therapy and drug therapy.
Monday, May 23, 2011
Vocab! Chapter 39
Puberty - period of rapid growth and sexual maturation during which the reproductive system becomes fully functional
Follicles - cluster of cells surrounding a single egg in the human female reproductive system
Ovary - the female gonad that produces eggs
Uterus - organ of the female reproductive system in which a fertilized egg can develop
Corpus Luteum - name given to a follicle after ovulation because of its yellow color
Menstrual cycle - cycle during which an egg develops and is released from an ovary and the uterus is prepared to receive a fertilized egg.
Placenta - organ in placental mammals through which nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide and wastes are exchanged between embryo and mother.
Fetus - name given to human embryo after eight weeks of development
Follicles - cluster of cells surrounding a single egg in the human female reproductive system
Ovary - the female gonad that produces eggs
Uterus - organ of the female reproductive system in which a fertilized egg can develop
Corpus Luteum - name given to a follicle after ovulation because of its yellow color
Menstrual cycle - cycle during which an egg develops and is released from an ovary and the uterus is prepared to receive a fertilized egg.
Placenta - organ in placental mammals through which nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide and wastes are exchanged between embryo and mother.
Fetus - name given to human embryo after eight weeks of development
Why the World Bugs Me Sometimes
The world is going to hell in a hand basket. Was anyone else completely enraged by this news caption? I can’t believe people’s priorities sometimes. These were the top four stories on Yahoo for May 23rd, 2011. 75% of the top news stories pertained to clothing and fashion, whereas a dangerous volcano was overshadowed by a HAT. Terrifying tornados that took LIVES are less important than the particular shade of beige that Brad Pitt wore in Cannes. This is absolutely infuriating. Who gives a freaking DAMN about a hat when natural disasters are stripping innocent victims of their lives? We should focus on sending aid to countries in need instead of focusing on petty, freaking retarded things like something a chick wore SEVERAL weeks ago. SO stupid. You know what’s worse? That this gets noticed by a fifteen year old kid. Why should the teenager be the voice of reason? Dear Yahoo, I like fashion. I really do. But not as much as I care about people or current events. Get a clue. Love, Mary.
Chapter 39 Assessment
Chapter 39 - 6-10, 17, 22, 27, 40
6) b
7) b
8) c
9) c
10) c
17) The start of sexual development
22) It is a hormone
27) To hold and nourish a child to term
40) If you lose all those nutrients, the fetus would die.
6) b
7) b
8) c
9) c
10) c
17) The start of sexual development
22) It is a hormone
27) To hold and nourish a child to term
40) If you lose all those nutrients, the fetus would die.
Chapter 38 Assessment
Chapter 38 Assessment –
1-6, 11-13, 15-22, 26
11) C 2) C 3) B 4) C 5) C 6) B
11) For energy, for growth
12) Carbs
13) They provide muscle growth
15) There is a muscle flap that prevents this
16) They break down food
17) Mechanical breaks food down on a physical/visible level, whereas chemical digestion is so small (molecular level) that you cannot see it.
18) They break down various types of nutrients
19) Science has advanced
20) It removes toxins from the body
21) It increases surface area
22) To eliminate waste
26) No. It is important to absorb nutrients. If you don’t, then the body cannot function
Vocab - Chapter 38
Chapter 38 Vocab
Calorie – amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 Celsius degree.
Carbohydrate – compound made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms; major source of energy for the human body.
Fat – lipid, made up of fatty acids and glycerol
Protein – macromolecule that contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen; needed by the body for growth and repair and to makeup enzymes.
Vitamin – organic molecule that helps regulate body processes
Mineral – inorganic nutrient the body needs, usually in small amounts
Amylase – enzyme in saliva that breaks the chemical bonds between he sugar monomers in starches
Esophagus – food tube connecting the mouth to the stomach
Peristalsis – rhythmic muscular contracts that squeeze food through the esophagus into the stomach.
Stomach – large muscular sac that continues the mechanical digestion of food
Chime – mixture of stomach fluids and food produced in the stomach by contracting muscles.
Small Intestine – digestive organ in which most chemical digestion takes place
Pancreas – gland that produces hormones that regulate blood sugar, enzymes that break down carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids, and sodium bicarbonate, a base that neutralizes stomach acid.
Liver – large organ just above the stomach that produces bile, a fluid loaded with lipids and salts.
Villi – folded projection that increases the surface area of the walls of the small intestine
Large Intestine – colon, organ that removes water from the undigested materials that pass throughout
Chapter 38 Notes
Sections 38.1-2
The nutrients that the body needs are water, carbs, fats, proteins, vitamins and minerals. Every cell in the human body NEEDS water, b/c many of the body's processes including chemical reactions take place in water. It's important to have a balanced diet.
The digestive system includes the mouth pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.
The purpose of the mouth is to make the food into smaller, usable pieces. Also, digestive enzymes in your saliva helps break down the food on a molecular level. This is called chemical digestion. The function of each organ of the digestive system is to help convert food into simpler molecules that can be absorbed and used by the cells of the body.
The combined actions of the tongue and throat molecules push the clump of food down the throat. From the throat, we go to the esophagus, or food tube down to the stomach. Gravity does not cause food to travel down this tube. We know this because astronauts can eat in outer space where gravity is unpredictable and nearly non-existent. Rather, muscles in the organ push food down to the stomach.
The stomach contains acids and chemicals that break down food into usable parts. The small intestine is where the food is absorbed. The interior of the intestine is lined with villi, which look like tiny hairs. This increases the surface area so that the body can absorb LARGE amounts at once. By the time food leaves the small intestine, nearly all the nutrients have been removed and what is left is basically toxic waste. The body eliminates it through the excretory system.
The nutrients that the body needs are water, carbs, fats, proteins, vitamins and minerals. Every cell in the human body NEEDS water, b/c many of the body's processes including chemical reactions take place in water. It's important to have a balanced diet.
The digestive system includes the mouth pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.
The purpose of the mouth is to make the food into smaller, usable pieces. Also, digestive enzymes in your saliva helps break down the food on a molecular level. This is called chemical digestion. The function of each organ of the digestive system is to help convert food into simpler molecules that can be absorbed and used by the cells of the body.
The combined actions of the tongue and throat molecules push the clump of food down the throat. From the throat, we go to the esophagus, or food tube down to the stomach. Gravity does not cause food to travel down this tube. We know this because astronauts can eat in outer space where gravity is unpredictable and nearly non-existent. Rather, muscles in the organ push food down to the stomach.
The stomach contains acids and chemicals that break down food into usable parts. The small intestine is where the food is absorbed. The interior of the intestine is lined with villi, which look like tiny hairs. This increases the surface area so that the body can absorb LARGE amounts at once. By the time food leaves the small intestine, nearly all the nutrients have been removed and what is left is basically toxic waste. The body eliminates it through the excretory system.
Saturday, April 23, 2011
Chapter 37 Vocab
Heart - main organ of the circulatory system
Atrium - large muscular upper chamber of the heart that receives and holds blood that is about to enter the ventricle
Valves - flap of connective tissue between an atrium and a ventricle or in a vein that prevents back flow of blood.
Pulmonary arteries - pathway in which the right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs
Veins - a blood vessel that returns blood to the heart
Plasma - straw colored fluid that makes up about 55 percent of blood; consists of about 90% water and about 10% dissolved gases, salts, nutrients, enzymes, hormones, waste products an plasma proteins.
Pharynx - muscular tube at the end of the gastrovascular cavity or throat that connect the mouth with the rest of the digestive tract and serves as a passageway for air and food.
Trachea - windpipe; tube through which air moves
Ventricles - thick walled lower chamber of the heart that pumps blood out of the heart
Pulmonary circulation - pathway in which the right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs.
Systemic circulation - pathway in which the left side of the heart pumps blood to all of the body except the lungs.
Aorta - large blood vessel in mammals through which blood travels from the left ventricle to all parts of the body except the lungs
Arteries - large blood vessel that carries blood from the heart to the tissues of the body
Capillaries - smallest blood vessel; brings nutrients and oxygen to the tissues and absorbs carbon dioxide and waste products
Hemoglobin - iron containing protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues of the body.
Lymph - fluid lost by the body into surrounding tissue
Platelet - cell fragment released by bone marrow
Larynx - structure in the throat containing the vocal cords
Bronchus - passageway leading from the trachea to a lung
Alveolus - tiny air sac at the end of the bronchiole in the lungs that provides surface area for gas exchange to occur
Diaphragm - large, flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity that contracts during breathing, pulling the bottom of the chest cavity down and increasing its volume.
Atrium - large muscular upper chamber of the heart that receives and holds blood that is about to enter the ventricle
Valves - flap of connective tissue between an atrium and a ventricle or in a vein that prevents back flow of blood.
Pulmonary arteries - pathway in which the right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs
Veins - a blood vessel that returns blood to the heart
Plasma - straw colored fluid that makes up about 55 percent of blood; consists of about 90% water and about 10% dissolved gases, salts, nutrients, enzymes, hormones, waste products an plasma proteins.
Pharynx - muscular tube at the end of the gastrovascular cavity or throat that connect the mouth with the rest of the digestive tract and serves as a passageway for air and food.
Trachea - windpipe; tube through which air moves
Ventricles - thick walled lower chamber of the heart that pumps blood out of the heart
Pulmonary circulation - pathway in which the right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs.
Systemic circulation - pathway in which the left side of the heart pumps blood to all of the body except the lungs.
Aorta - large blood vessel in mammals through which blood travels from the left ventricle to all parts of the body except the lungs
Arteries - large blood vessel that carries blood from the heart to the tissues of the body
Capillaries - smallest blood vessel; brings nutrients and oxygen to the tissues and absorbs carbon dioxide and waste products
Hemoglobin - iron containing protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues of the body.
Lymph - fluid lost by the body into surrounding tissue
Platelet - cell fragment released by bone marrow
Larynx - structure in the throat containing the vocal cords
Bronchus - passageway leading from the trachea to a lung
Alveolus - tiny air sac at the end of the bronchiole in the lungs that provides surface area for gas exchange to occur
Diaphragm - large, flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity that contracts during breathing, pulling the bottom of the chest cavity down and increasing its volume.
Chapter 37 Assessment
Chapter 37 Assessment: 1-10, 11-13, 27, 30,
1) d
2) a
3) b
4) b
5) b
6) a
7) c
8) a
9) a
10) c
11) system in which blood is contained w/in a network of blood vessels
12) Pulmonary circulation is the pathway in which the right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs whereas systemic circulation is pathway in which the left side of the heart pumps blood to all of the body except the lungs.
13) The human circulatory system consists of the heart, a series of blood vessels, and the blood that flows through them. As the blood flows through the circulatory system, it moves through three types of blood vessels, arteries, capillaries and veins.
27) The blood vessel would become blocked and eventually explode. It would cut off blood from the heart and the patient would die.
30) B/c the blood is only flowing in one direction
1) d
2) a
3) b
4) b
5) b
6) a
7) c
8) a
9) a
10) c
11) system in which blood is contained w/in a network of blood vessels
12) Pulmonary circulation is the pathway in which the right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs whereas systemic circulation is pathway in which the left side of the heart pumps blood to all of the body except the lungs.
13) The human circulatory system consists of the heart, a series of blood vessels, and the blood that flows through them. As the blood flows through the circulatory system, it moves through three types of blood vessels, arteries, capillaries and veins.
27) The blood vessel would become blocked and eventually explode. It would cut off blood from the heart and the patient would die.
30) B/c the blood is only flowing in one direction
Chapter 37 Circulatory System notes
The human circulatory system consists of the heart, a series of blood vessels and the blood that flows through them.
Your heart is located hear the center of your chest. It is composed almost entirely of muscle. The hard is enclosed in protective tissue called pericaridum. In the walls of the heart there are two thin layers of epithelial and connective tissue that form a sandwich around a thick layer of muscle called the myocardium. The powerful contractions of the myocardium pump blood through the circulatory. Dividing the right side of the heart from the left side is the septum or wall. The septum prevents the mixing of oxygen-poor and oxygen rich blood. On each side of the septum are two chambers. The upper chamber which receives the blood is called the atrium. The lower chamber which pumps blood out of the heart is the ventricle.
The heart functions as two separate pumps . The right side of the heart pumps blood from the heart to the lungs. The left side pumps out of the lungs and into the left side and then out to the body. This pathway is called systemic circulation. Blood that returns to the right side of the heart is oxygen poor because cells have absorbed much of the oxygen and loaded the blood with carbon dioxide. t this point, it is ready for another trip to the lungs.
As blood flows through the circulatory system, ti moves through three types of blood vessels - arteries, capillaries, and veins.
Red blood cells transport oxygen. They get their color from Hemoglobin. It is the iron containing protein that binds to oxygen in the lungs and transports it to tissues throughout the body where oxygen is released.
White blood cells, or leukcocytes are fewer than red blood cells. For every 700 red blood cells, there is just one white blood cell. White blood cells attack foreign substances or organisms.
Blood clotting is made possible by plasma proteins and cell fragments called platelets. There are certain large cells in bone marrow that bread into thousands of small pieces. Each fragment of cytoplasms is enclosed in a piece of cell membrane and released into the bloodstream as a platelet.
A network of vessels called the lymphatic system collects the fluid that is lost by the blood and returns it to the circulatory system. The fluid is called lymph. It collects in lymphatic capillaries and slowly flows into larger and larger lymph vessels. Like large veins, lymph vessels contain valves that prevent lymph from flowing backward. Ducts collect the lymph and return it to the circulatory system through two openings in the superior vena cava. The openings are under the left and right clavicle bones just below the shoulders.
Your heart is located hear the center of your chest. It is composed almost entirely of muscle. The hard is enclosed in protective tissue called pericaridum. In the walls of the heart there are two thin layers of epithelial and connective tissue that form a sandwich around a thick layer of muscle called the myocardium. The powerful contractions of the myocardium pump blood through the circulatory. Dividing the right side of the heart from the left side is the septum or wall. The septum prevents the mixing of oxygen-poor and oxygen rich blood. On each side of the septum are two chambers. The upper chamber which receives the blood is called the atrium. The lower chamber which pumps blood out of the heart is the ventricle.
The heart functions as two separate pumps . The right side of the heart pumps blood from the heart to the lungs. The left side pumps out of the lungs and into the left side and then out to the body. This pathway is called systemic circulation. Blood that returns to the right side of the heart is oxygen poor because cells have absorbed much of the oxygen and loaded the blood with carbon dioxide. t this point, it is ready for another trip to the lungs.
As blood flows through the circulatory system, ti moves through three types of blood vessels - arteries, capillaries, and veins.
Red blood cells transport oxygen. They get their color from Hemoglobin. It is the iron containing protein that binds to oxygen in the lungs and transports it to tissues throughout the body where oxygen is released.
White blood cells, or leukcocytes are fewer than red blood cells. For every 700 red blood cells, there is just one white blood cell. White blood cells attack foreign substances or organisms.
Blood clotting is made possible by plasma proteins and cell fragments called platelets. There are certain large cells in bone marrow that bread into thousands of small pieces. Each fragment of cytoplasms is enclosed in a piece of cell membrane and released into the bloodstream as a platelet.
A network of vessels called the lymphatic system collects the fluid that is lost by the blood and returns it to the circulatory system. The fluid is called lymph. It collects in lymphatic capillaries and slowly flows into larger and larger lymph vessels. Like large veins, lymph vessels contain valves that prevent lymph from flowing backward. Ducts collect the lymph and return it to the circulatory system through two openings in the superior vena cava. The openings are under the left and right clavicle bones just below the shoulders.
Active Art Assessment
Print out this page, and complete the table below by briefly describing each type of freely movable joint.
Name: __________Mary Di Valerio__________________________
Date: _____4/23/11_____________
Class: __________________
Date: _____4/23/11_____________
Class: __________________
| Type of Joint | Type of Movement | Examples in the Body |
| Ball-and-socket | circular | arm/shoulder |
| Hinge | back and forth | knee |
| Pivot | side to side | neck |
| Saddle | in many directions | thumb |
Answer the following questions.
- What is a joint? place where one bone fixes to another
- Where in the body can you find fixed joints? Where bones such as vertebra meet
- What are ligaments? strong, flexible tissue that connect
- What connects bone to muscle? tendons
- How do bones and muscles work together to allow movement?
- joints allow for controlled movement
Week 4 Bio Vocab Quarter 4
Periosteum - tough layer of connective tissue surrounding a bone
Haversian canals - one of a network of tubes running through compact bone that contains blood vessels and nerves
Bone Marrow - soft tissue inside cavities within bones; two types are yellow marrow and red marrow
Cartilage - strong connective tissue that supports the body and is softer and more flexible than bones
Ossification - process of bone formation during which cartilage is replaced by bone
Joint - place where one bone attaches to another
Ligaments - strip of tough connective tissue in a joint that holds bones together.
Skeletal muscle - striated muscle that is usually attached to the skeleton and is usually under voluntary control
Smooth muscle - involuntary muscle tissue in the walls of viscera and blood vessels, consisting of nonstriated, spindle-shaped cells.
Cardiac muscle - a specialized form of striated muscle occurring in the heartsof vertebrates.
Tendons - . a cord or band of dense, tough, inelastic, white,fibrous tissue, serving to connect a muscle with a bone orpart; sinew.
Epidermis - outer layer of skin
Keratin - tough, fibrous protein found in skin
Melanin - dark brown pigment found in skin
Haversian canals - one of a network of tubes running through compact bone that contains blood vessels and nerves
Bone Marrow - soft tissue inside cavities within bones; two types are yellow marrow and red marrow
Cartilage - strong connective tissue that supports the body and is softer and more flexible than bones
Ossification - process of bone formation during which cartilage is replaced by bone
Joint - place where one bone attaches to another
Ligaments - strip of tough connective tissue in a joint that holds bones together.
Skeletal muscle - striated muscle that is usually attached to the skeleton and is usually under voluntary control
Smooth muscle - involuntary muscle tissue in the walls of viscera and blood vessels, consisting of nonstriated, spindle-shaped cells.
Cardiac muscle - a specialized form of striated muscle occurring in the heartsof vertebrates.
Tendons - . a cord or band of dense, tough, inelastic, white,fibrous tissue, serving to connect a muscle with a bone orpart; sinew.
Epidermis - outer layer of skin
Keratin - tough, fibrous protein found in skin
Melanin - dark brown pigment found in skin
Chapter 36 Assesment
Chapter 36 Assessment: 1-9, 11, 13, 16, 28, 30
1) d
2) c
3) a
4) a
5) a
6) b
7) c
8) c
9) d
11) Spongy tissue, periosteum, compact bone and blood marrow
13)
1) d
2) c
3) a
4) a
5) a
6) b
7) c
8) c
9) d
11) Spongy tissue, periosteum, compact bone and blood marrow
13)
16. Smooth muscles line internal organs and control involuntary movements. Skeletal muscle has to do with voluntary movements. Cardiac muscle has to do w/ the heart.
28) The first picture, because the bone has only begun to form.
30) It would have to include a base skeletal system, a joint where it would bend and soft tissue to act as muscle.
Muscles! Chapter 36-2 Notes
More than 40% of the body's mass is muscle. There are three types of muscle tissue - skeletal, smooth and cardiac. Each one has a different structure/purpose.
Skeletal muscles are usually attacked to bones. They are responsible for voluntary movements. It is also called striated muscle. Most of them are controlled by the central nervous system.
Skeletal muscles are long and thin. Smooth muscles are usually not under voluntary control. Cardiac muscle is found in the heart.
A muscle contracts when the thin filaments in the muscle fiber slide over thick filaments.
The energy for muscle contraction is supplied by ATP.
Skeletal muscles are usually attacked to bones. They are responsible for voluntary movements. It is also called striated muscle. Most of them are controlled by the central nervous system.
Skeletal muscles are long and thin. Smooth muscles are usually not under voluntary control. Cardiac muscle is found in the heart.
A muscle contracts when the thin filaments in the muscle fiber slide over thick filaments.
The energy for muscle contraction is supplied by ATP.
Thursday, April 21, 2011
Core Bio Notes Chapter 36-1
The skeleton supports the body, protects internal organs, provides for movement, stores mineral reserves, and provides a site for blood cell formation.
The skeleton is like the wooden frame of a house.
Bones also protect the internal organs of the body. For example, the skull protects the brain, and the ribs protect the lungs.
They are also a system of levers that control muscles.
Bones are also the site of blood cell formation.
Blood cells are produced in soft marrow tissue that fills the internal cavities in some bones.
There are 206 bones in the adult human skeleton.
The bones can be divided into two parts, the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton supports the central axis of the body. It consists of a skull, the vertebral column and the rib cage. The bones of the arms and legs along with the bones of the pelvis and shoulder area, from the appendicular skeleton.
Bones are a solid network of living cells and protein fibers that are surrounded by deposits of calcium salts. The bone is surrounded by a tough layer of connective tissue called the periosteum. Blood vessels that pass through the periosteum carry oxygen and nutrients to the bone. Beneath the periosteum is compact bone. It is dense and within it runs tubes called Haversian canals. They contain blood vessels and nerves. Underneath that is the spongy bone. Finally, the inner part of the bone is called marrow. There are two types of marrow, yellow and red.
Yellow is made of fat cells and red produces blood cells, some kinds of white blood cells and platelets.
The skeleton of a newborn is composed almost entirely of cartilage. Cartilage is replaced by bone through ossification.
Depending on its type of movement, a joint is classified as immovable, slightly movable and freely movable.
The skeleton is like the wooden frame of a house.
Bones also protect the internal organs of the body. For example, the skull protects the brain, and the ribs protect the lungs.
They are also a system of levers that control muscles.
Bones are also the site of blood cell formation.
Blood cells are produced in soft marrow tissue that fills the internal cavities in some bones.
There are 206 bones in the adult human skeleton.
The bones can be divided into two parts, the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton supports the central axis of the body. It consists of a skull, the vertebral column and the rib cage. The bones of the arms and legs along with the bones of the pelvis and shoulder area, from the appendicular skeleton.
Bones are a solid network of living cells and protein fibers that are surrounded by deposits of calcium salts. The bone is surrounded by a tough layer of connective tissue called the periosteum. Blood vessels that pass through the periosteum carry oxygen and nutrients to the bone. Beneath the periosteum is compact bone. It is dense and within it runs tubes called Haversian canals. They contain blood vessels and nerves. Underneath that is the spongy bone. Finally, the inner part of the bone is called marrow. There are two types of marrow, yellow and red.
Yellow is made of fat cells and red produces blood cells, some kinds of white blood cells and platelets.
The skeleton of a newborn is composed almost entirely of cartilage. Cartilage is replaced by bone through ossification.
Depending on its type of movement, a joint is classified as immovable, slightly movable and freely movable.
Monday, April 4, 2011
Vocabulary of Chapter 35
Specialized cells - cells designed to do specific tasks
Epithelial tissues - tissue that covers the surface of the body and lines internal organs
Muscle tissue - tissue that controls the internal movement of materials in the body, as well as external movement of the entire body or body parts.
Homeostasis - process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment
Sensory receptors - neuron that reacts directly to light, sound or other stimuli by sending impulses to to other neurons and eventually to the central nervous system
Rods - photo-receptor in eye that is extremely sensitive to light
Cones - in gymnosperms, a seed-bearing structure in the retina of the eyes, a photo-receptor that responds to light of different colors, producing color vision
Pupil - small opening in the middle of the iris through which light enters the eye
Connective tissues - tissue that holds organs in place and binds different parts of the body together.
Nervous tissue - tissue that receives messages from the body's external and internal environment, analyzes the data and directs the response.
Feedback Inhibition - process by which cells release energy in the absence of oxygen
Neuron - cell that carries messages throughout the nervous system
Lens - transparent object behind the iris that changes shape to help adjust the eye's focus to see near or distant objects
Retina - innermost layer of the eye
Cochlea - fluid filled part of the inner eye, sends nerve impulses to the brain through the cochlear nerve
Semicircular canals - one of the three structures within the inner ear that help an organism maintain balance.
Taste buds - sense organs that detect the flavor of a substance
Epithelial tissues - tissue that covers the surface of the body and lines internal organs
Muscle tissue - tissue that controls the internal movement of materials in the body, as well as external movement of the entire body or body parts.
Homeostasis - process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment
Sensory receptors - neuron that reacts directly to light, sound or other stimuli by sending impulses to to other neurons and eventually to the central nervous system
Rods - photo-receptor in eye that is extremely sensitive to light
Cones - in gymnosperms, a seed-bearing structure in the retina of the eyes, a photo-receptor that responds to light of different colors, producing color vision
Pupil - small opening in the middle of the iris through which light enters the eye
Connective tissues - tissue that holds organs in place and binds different parts of the body together.
Nervous tissue - tissue that receives messages from the body's external and internal environment, analyzes the data and directs the response.
Feedback Inhibition - process by which cells release energy in the absence of oxygen
Neuron - cell that carries messages throughout the nervous system
Lens - transparent object behind the iris that changes shape to help adjust the eye's focus to see near or distant objects
Retina - innermost layer of the eye
Cochlea - fluid filled part of the inner eye, sends nerve impulses to the brain through the cochlear nerve
Semicircular canals - one of the three structures within the inner ear that help an organism maintain balance.
Taste buds - sense organs that detect the flavor of a substance
Chapter 35 Assesment
Chapter 35 Assessment - 1-5, 9, 11, 11-12, 19-21, 26 31, 34
- c
- b
- a
- d
- d
9. b
11. cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
12. It allows the creature to not undergo large temperature changes which would be harmful to the creature
19. The central nervous system relays messages, processes information and analyzes information. The sensory division of the peripheral nervous system transmits impulses from sense organs to the central nervous system. The motor division transmits impulses from the central nervous system to the muscle on the glands.
20. It goes through the eye
21. It goes through the ear
26. Use existing data and formulate a conclusion - no experiment needed.
31. Blood leakage
34. Judgement can become impaired.
Chapter 35 Notes
The eleven organ systems of the human body work together to maintain homeostasis. These organ systems are:
- Nervous
- Integumentary
- Respiratory
- Digestive
- Excretory
- Skeletal
- Muscular
- Circulatory
- Endocrine
- Reproductive
- Lymphatic
Different tissue types work together within organs. The types of tissue are
- Muscle - most common in animals, controls the internal movement of materials such as blood. Also controls external movements like typing
- Epithelial tissue - closely packed cells that cover the surface of the body and line internal organs such as the heart to prevent blood leakage. Glands are made of this type of tissue
- Connective tissue - holds organs in place and binds different parts of the body together. An example would be a tendon
- Nervous Tissue - receives messages from the body's external and internal environments, analyzes data and directs the response.
Biological systems achieve homeostasis through feedback inhibition.
The nervous system controls and coordinates functions throughout the body and responds to internal and external stimuli.
The messages carried by the nervous system are electrical signals called impulses. The cells that transmit these impulses are called neurons. There are three types, motor, sensory and Inter neurons.
A nerve impulse begins when a neuron is stimulated by another neuron or by its environment.
There are five general categories of sensory receptors; pain receptors, thermo receptors, mechanorecpetors, chemoreceptros and photoreceptros.
Sunday, April 3, 2011
Chapter 34 Vocabulary
Behavior - the way an organism reacts to changes in its internal condition or external environment
Stimulus - any kind of detectable signal that carries information
Response - single, specific reaction to a stimulus
Innate Behavior - instinct or inborn behavior; behavior that appears in a fully functional form the first time it is preformed.
Learning - alterations in behavior as a result of experience
Habituation - learning process by which an animal decreases or stops its response to a repetitive stimulus that neither rewards nor harms it
Classical Conditioning - learning process in which an animal makes a mental connection between a stimulus and some kind of reward or punishment
Operant conditioning - learning process in which an animal learns to behave in a certain way through repeated practice, in order to receive a reward or avoid punishment' also called trial and error learning
Insight learning - also called reasoning; learning process in which an animal applies something it has already learned to a new situation without a period of trial and error
Imprinting - learning based on early experience; once imprinting has occurred, the behavior cannot be changed
Migration - periodic movement and return of animals from one place to another
Circadian rhythm - behavioral cycle that occurs in a daily pattern
Courtship - type of behavior in which an animal sends out stimuli, such as sounds, visual displays or chemicals, in order to attract a member of the opposite sex
Territory - specific area occupied and protected by an animal or group of animals.
Aggression - threatening behavior that one animal uses to gain control over another
Communication - passing of information from one organism to another
Language - system of communication that combines sounds, symbols or gestures according to a set of rules about word order and meaning.
Stimulus - any kind of detectable signal that carries information
Response - single, specific reaction to a stimulus
Innate Behavior - instinct or inborn behavior; behavior that appears in a fully functional form the first time it is preformed.
Learning - alterations in behavior as a result of experience
Habituation - learning process by which an animal decreases or stops its response to a repetitive stimulus that neither rewards nor harms it
Classical Conditioning - learning process in which an animal makes a mental connection between a stimulus and some kind of reward or punishment
Operant conditioning - learning process in which an animal learns to behave in a certain way through repeated practice, in order to receive a reward or avoid punishment' also called trial and error learning
Insight learning - also called reasoning; learning process in which an animal applies something it has already learned to a new situation without a period of trial and error
Imprinting - learning based on early experience; once imprinting has occurred, the behavior cannot be changed
Migration - periodic movement and return of animals from one place to another
Circadian rhythm - behavioral cycle that occurs in a daily pattern
Courtship - type of behavior in which an animal sends out stimuli, such as sounds, visual displays or chemicals, in order to attract a member of the opposite sex
Territory - specific area occupied and protected by an animal or group of animals.
Aggression - threatening behavior that one animal uses to gain control over another
Communication - passing of information from one organism to another
Language - system of communication that combines sounds, symbols or gestures according to a set of rules about word order and meaning.
Chapter 34 Assessment
Chapter Assessment - 1-21, 22, 25, 27
1) d 2) d 3) b 4) c 5) b 6) b 7) b 8) a 9) c 10) c
11) An animal feels hungry and eats food
12) the nervous system aids in response
13) It can allow the animals to conserve energy
14) Pavlov used classic conditioning to get the dog to associate the bell with the food
15) It involves learning WHO your mother is and also following
16) Yes
17) It can aid them in finding food and shelter
18) It showed how primates related to each other
19) When another animal crosses into one animal's territory, aggression tends to ensue.
20) Pheromones are sexual chemicals that aid in courtship and mating of animals
21) Humans
22) Compare/Contrast based on existing data, no experiment needed
25) The salmon would get lost and die
27) It has it's ups and downs.
1) d 2) d 3) b 4) c 5) b 6) b 7) b 8) a 9) c 10) c
11) An animal feels hungry and eats food
12) the nervous system aids in response
13) It can allow the animals to conserve energy
14) Pavlov used classic conditioning to get the dog to associate the bell with the food
15) It involves learning WHO your mother is and also following
16) Yes
17) It can aid them in finding food and shelter
18) It showed how primates related to each other
19) When another animal crosses into one animal's territory, aggression tends to ensue.
20) Pheromones are sexual chemicals that aid in courtship and mating of animals
21) Humans
22) Compare/Contrast based on existing data, no experiment needed
25) The salmon would get lost and die
27) It has it's ups and downs.
Chapter 34 Animal Behavior Notes
Biologists define behavior as the way an organism reacts to changes in its internal condition or external environment. Behaviors are preformed when an animal reacts to a stimulus. Stimuli is any kind of signal that carries information and can be detected. An internal stimulus could be stomach pain when you are hungry. An external stimulus could be your phone ringing. A single specific reaction to a stimulus such as waking up when you hear an alarm is called a response.
Animals can detect many types of stimuli such as light, sound, odors and heat. Not every animal can detect every kind of stimuli and some can detect interesting or odd stimuli such as the earth's magnetic field.
When an animal responds to a stimulus, body systems including the sense organs, nervous system and muscles interact to produce the resultant behavior. Innate behaviors appear in fully functional form the first time they are performed, even though the animal may have had no previous experience with the stimuli to which it responds.
The four major types of learning are habituation, classical conditioning, operant conditioning and insight learning.
Animals can detect many types of stimuli such as light, sound, odors and heat. Not every animal can detect every kind of stimuli and some can detect interesting or odd stimuli such as the earth's magnetic field.
When an animal responds to a stimulus, body systems including the sense organs, nervous system and muscles interact to produce the resultant behavior. Innate behaviors appear in fully functional form the first time they are performed, even though the animal may have had no previous experience with the stimuli to which it responds.
The four major types of learning are habituation, classical conditioning, operant conditioning and insight learning.
Wednesday, March 23, 2011
Biology Vocab
Mammary Glands - gland in mammals that produces milk to nourish the young
Subcutaneous fat - layer of fat cells beneath the skin
diaphragm - large, flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity that contracts during breathing, pulling the bottom of the chest cavity down and increasing its volume
Cerebral cortex - outer layer of the cerebrum of a mammal's brain' center of thinking and other complex behavior.
Monotremes - egg laying mammal
Marsupials - mammal that bears live young that complete their development in an external pouch
Placenta - organ in placental mammals through which nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide and wastes are exchanged between embryo and mother.
Hominoid - member of a group of primates that includes apes and humans
Homind - primate that walks upright, has opposite thumbs, and possesses a large brain, only living members are humans.
Subcutaneous fat - layer of fat cells beneath the skin
diaphragm - large, flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity that contracts during breathing, pulling the bottom of the chest cavity down and increasing its volume
Cerebral cortex - outer layer of the cerebrum of a mammal's brain' center of thinking and other complex behavior.
Monotremes - egg laying mammal
Marsupials - mammal that bears live young that complete their development in an external pouch
Placenta - organ in placental mammals through which nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide and wastes are exchanged between embryo and mother.
Hominoid - member of a group of primates that includes apes and humans
Homind - primate that walks upright, has opposite thumbs, and possesses a large brain, only living members are humans.
Chapter 32 Assessment
Chapter Assessment 32: 1-4, 7-10, 11, 22, 24, 26, 27-28, 31, 33
1) c
2) a
3) a
4) a
7) a
8) b
9) d
10) a
11) high metabolism, external body hair, subcutaneous
fat
22) flexible toes, fingers and shoulders, well-developed cerebrum, and binocular vision
24) Prosimians
26) They have different points of evolution
27) A newborn marsupial still needs MAJOR nurturing from the biological mother, whereas a placental mammal can be bottle-fed and doesn’t really need the actual mother with our present technology.
28) They aid in survival of the mammal
31) A, b and c are all mammals. A is a bat, B is a horse and c is a whale.
33) Vegetarians are herbivores, everyone else is an omnivore.
-Mary-Tuesday, March 22, 2011
Chapter 31 Bio Vocab
Reptile - any vertebrate that has dry scaly skin, lungs and terrestrial eggs with several protective membranes.
Feathers - structure made mostly of protein that develops from a pit in a bird's skin
Endotherms - animal that generates its own bod heat and controls its body temperature from within
Gizzard - in earthworms, part of the digestive system in which food is ground into smaller pieces, in birds, a muscular organ that helps in the mechanical breakdown of food
Ectotherms - animal that relies on interactions with the environment to help it control body temperature
Feathers - structure made mostly of protein that develops from a pit in a bird's skin
Endotherms - animal that generates its own bod heat and controls its body temperature from within
Gizzard - in earthworms, part of the digestive system in which food is ground into smaller pieces, in birds, a muscular organ that helps in the mechanical breakdown of food
Ectotherms - animal that relies on interactions with the environment to help it control body temperature
The Chordates - Chapter 31 Assessment
Chapter 31 - 1-4, 6, 11-14, 19, 22, 29, 30-31
1) c 2) b 3) b 4)c
6) a
11) It must shed as the animal grows larger.
12) Heat caused their extinction
13) Temperature, loss of food, etc
14) It can keep them cool or warm.
19) fish
22) feathers
29) The warmer island - reptiles need warmth in order to keep up their body temperature.
30) They can stand in water w/o drowning
31) bird
1) c 2) b 3) b 4)c
6) a
11) It must shed as the animal grows larger.
12) Heat caused their extinction
13) Temperature, loss of food, etc
14) It can keep them cool or warm.
19) fish
22) feathers
29) The warmer island - reptiles need warmth in order to keep up their body temperature.
30) They can stand in water w/o drowning
31) bird
Those Poor Frogs... (A rant)
The fact that humans affect planet earth is non-debatable. It’s obvious that we have an effect on our habitat. No problem, it’s our planet – if we destroy it – our loss, who care? It was our fault and nobody gets hurt except the bad guy (us!) Right? Wrong. The problem with this kind of “it doesn’t matter anyway” mindset is that thousands of God’s innocent creatures can be affected and we are 100% to blame. An example of this would be rain-forest creatures. Greedy corporations are tearing down rainforests for lumber that they can harvest cheaply and then sell for a high price. Thousands of species are being destroyed by the same machete knives and bulldozers used to plow through the forests to kill the trees. Some of those species are frogs – not only are they harmed by various machines used to clear the jungle spaces, but they are also affected by the fact that their habitat is destroyed and they have no place to go. If you destroy an animal’s habitat it is like dropping an atomic bomb on a human city – it is almost impossible for the human city to recover. Humans need to be more conscious of their actions and how they affect the various biomes on the planet. Humans are slowly killing frogs by result of pollution, global warming and greed.
Frogs possess a rather interesting type of skin. Instead of drinking water, they absorb most of the moisture they need through their skin. Not only that, but their skin also helps them breathe! Since frogs can only get oxygen through their skin when it’s wet, it’s important for them to stay slimy and cool. Frogs secrete a mucus to help them stay wet but even so it’s important for them to stay near water. Because frogs take in oxygen and water through their skin, other things are bound to get in. Things like chemicals or fertilizers that could potentially harm or even kill the frog! An article from Science Daily states “High levels of nutrients used in farming and ranching activities fuel parasite infections that have caused highly publicized frog deformities in ponds and lakes across North America. “ A study led by the University of Colorado shows that certain pollutants that occur in our environment due to farming encourage parasite growths, thus ramping up infections in the frog population. The infections cause the frogs to grow abnormalities and deformities, putting a damper on their fight for survival. Greedy corporate agriculture firms are using un-safe fertilization formulas because they can spread them cheaply and sell their quick-growing vegetables for a large profit. However, these un-safe fertilizers are endangering the species by causing abnormalities. A study by a Yale professor raised a troubling concern - 21% of male frogs are hermaphrodites! This means that there are immature eggs growing in their testes and are neither male nor female. Hermaphrodites cannot reproduce which means that the species will not be able to survive. The professor linked the high level of Hermaphrodites with the also high level of herbicides used in the area. Human pollutants that are environmentally unsafe are causing a high level or problems for frogs. Humans are the greatest enemy to the frog.
Another human activity – excess energy use is also fueling the frog’s extinction. Global warming caused by Co2 in the atmosphere is drying up lakes and ponds. Because a frog’s skin must stay wet, this destroys the frog’s habitat. Furthermore, one may recall from their high school biology class that frogs must lay their eggs in water. Without water, eggs cannot be laid and new frogs cannot be born. Also, without water, frogs cannot stay cool and they can become feverish and die. All together – Global Warming is not helping frogs! Now, some people might argue that climate change occurs naturally and animals can undergo microevolution in order to cope. This is true – but we aren’t talking about a natural climate change. It is at least partially if not mostly caused by the human race and this accelerated climate change is coming on too fast even for the most adaptive species of amphibians. Frogs are incredibly sensitive to environmental changes. The rapid disappearance of many species of frogs acts as a sort of “Canary in a Coalmine.” It is a sort of clue to scientist that something is very, very wrong with our planet. In fact, global warming is SO harmful that every day a new species of frogs disappear from the planet. If this is only the beginning of Global Warming and frogs are dying left and right, what will happen to the human race? The time to take action is now. Not only is it our responsibility to the frogs and the planet but also to ourselves and our children. We have to solve this problem before it gets out of control.
Many of the problems in our world stem from greed. Starvation, homelessness, and STDS around the world could have been solved if it wasn’t for people acting only on selfish interests. The deaths of frogs is also effected by human greed. Living in a capitalistic system where the main goal is to make money, corporations go to great lengths to use the cheapest products to get the jobs done and often replace natural substances with chemicals in order to make money. The effects of their greed is hurting frogs around the globe. Here’s where the cincher comes in – there is nothing we can do to MAKE people not be greedy. People are sinful and will display greedy qualities until the end of time. How can we help? Government grants? Absolutely not. That is completely unfair – you can’t except a remnant to pay for the sins of the mass. Government regulation? Forget it. We don’t need more limitations, not even if it pertains to saving our planet. Regulation can become corrupted and only will make the problem worse. Government anything? Nope. If it involves power, then forget it. Corruption will take over. So what’s the solution? Education is the only way to fix the problem. Conscious of people still exist and it’s best to take advantage of them by presenting the moral dilemma of greed. When it comes to solving the planet, humans are the ones for the jobs. But you can’t force people to do things – you have to allow them to make the choice on their own. To do so, we offer non-profit education to people and explain the dilemma at hand. No political slogans, no government loans, just mouth to mouth, word-for-word people helping people. We can solve the frog extinction problem if we work together.
Monday, March 21, 2011
The Chordates - Reptiles
The basic body plan of a reptile is typical of a land vertebrate - well-developed skull, a backbone, a tail, two limb girdles and four limbs. Two types have slightly different plans - Snakes are mostly limbless and turtles have hard shells fused to their vertebrate.
A reptile is a vertebrate that has dry, scaly skin, lungs and terrestrial eggs with several membranes. Reptiles can live their entire lives outside of water.
Reptiles have tough, waterproof skin that sheds when the creature grows out of it.
The only place on earth where reptiles cannot live are very cold areas.
Well-developed lungs' a double loop circulatory system; a water conserving excretory system; strong limbs; internal fertilization; and shelled, terrestrial eggs are the other adaptions that have contributed to the success of reptiles on land. Reptiles control their body temperature by changing environments.
Ectotherms rely on behavior to help control body temperatures. Turtles, snakes and other reptiles are all ectotherms. To warm up, they move to a sunny area or stay under water all night. To cool down, they move to the shade, go for a swim or take shelter in a burrow.
Reptiles eat a wide variety of food .Some are herbivores, such as Iguanas. Snakes, for example are carnivores and chameloms eat insects and plants.
The lungs of reptiles are very spongy, providing more gas exchange area than those of amphibians. This is because reptiles cannot breathe through their skin like other animals. Snakes have only one lung.
Reptiles have a double loop circulatory system. One loop brings blood to and from the lungs, and the other loop brings blood to and from the rest of the body. Crocodiles and alligators have the most developed hearts of living reptiles.
Reptiles eliminate waste products with little water in order to conserve water. Their uric acid is crystallized and emitted in paste form.
Reptiles have complex eyes and can see color well. They also have a very good sense of smell and can pick up vibrations through their skull.
The backbones of reptiles help them achieve movement.
All reptiles reproduce by internal fertilization. They also lay eggs with leathery shells.
The four surviving groups of reptiles are lizards, and snakes, crocodilians, turtles and the tuatara.
A reptile is a vertebrate that has dry, scaly skin, lungs and terrestrial eggs with several membranes. Reptiles can live their entire lives outside of water.
Reptiles have tough, waterproof skin that sheds when the creature grows out of it.
The only place on earth where reptiles cannot live are very cold areas.
Well-developed lungs' a double loop circulatory system; a water conserving excretory system; strong limbs; internal fertilization; and shelled, terrestrial eggs are the other adaptions that have contributed to the success of reptiles on land. Reptiles control their body temperature by changing environments.
Ectotherms rely on behavior to help control body temperatures. Turtles, snakes and other reptiles are all ectotherms. To warm up, they move to a sunny area or stay under water all night. To cool down, they move to the shade, go for a swim or take shelter in a burrow.
Reptiles eat a wide variety of food .Some are herbivores, such as Iguanas. Snakes, for example are carnivores and chameloms eat insects and plants.
The lungs of reptiles are very spongy, providing more gas exchange area than those of amphibians. This is because reptiles cannot breathe through their skin like other animals. Snakes have only one lung.
Reptiles have a double loop circulatory system. One loop brings blood to and from the lungs, and the other loop brings blood to and from the rest of the body. Crocodiles and alligators have the most developed hearts of living reptiles.
Reptiles eliminate waste products with little water in order to conserve water. Their uric acid is crystallized and emitted in paste form.
Reptiles have complex eyes and can see color well. They also have a very good sense of smell and can pick up vibrations through their skull.
The backbones of reptiles help them achieve movement.
All reptiles reproduce by internal fertilization. They also lay eggs with leathery shells.
The four surviving groups of reptiles are lizards, and snakes, crocodilians, turtles and the tuatara.
Friday, March 18, 2011
The Chordates - Chapter 30 Key Terms
Chordates - member of the phylum Chordata; animal that has, for at least some stage of its life, a dorsal, hallow nerve cord; a notochord; pharyngeal pouches; and a muscular tail
Notochord - long supporting rod that runs through a chordate's body just below the nerve cord
Pharyngeal pouches - one of a pair of structures in the throat (pharynx) region of a chordate
Vertebrae - animal that has a vertebral column or backbone
Fish - aquatic vertebrate characterized by paired fins, scales and gills
Cartilage - strong connective tissue that supports the body and is softer and more flexible than bone
Amphibian - vertebrate that, with some exceptions, lives in water as a larva and on land as an adult, breathes with lungs as an adult, and has moist skin that contains mucus glands and lacks scales and claws.
Notochord - long supporting rod that runs through a chordate's body just below the nerve cord
Pharyngeal pouches - one of a pair of structures in the throat (pharynx) region of a chordate
Vertebrae - animal that has a vertebral column or backbone
Fish - aquatic vertebrate characterized by paired fins, scales and gills
Cartilage - strong connective tissue that supports the body and is softer and more flexible than bone
Amphibian - vertebrate that, with some exceptions, lives in water as a larva and on land as an adult, breathes with lungs as an adult, and has moist skin that contains mucus glands and lacks scales and claws.
The Chordates - Chapter 30 Assesment
1) c. 2) b 3) c 7) a
11) In most developing vertebrates, the notochord grows into the brain and hardens, turning into the spinal cord or backbone.
25) Two specialized structures that give amphibians movement are legs and fins. An example of legs would be a frog's hind legs that allow them to jump. An example of a fin would be the fins on a salamander that help them move through the water in an S-shaped pattern.
28) The world-wide decline of amphibian populations could be related to two of their prominent characteristics - Their skin is thin and must be kept moist and their eggs have no shell and must be kept moist. Global warming is reducing the amount of water that amphibians can use.
11) In most developing vertebrates, the notochord grows into the brain and hardens, turning into the spinal cord or backbone.
25) Two specialized structures that give amphibians movement are legs and fins. An example of legs would be a frog's hind legs that allow them to jump. An example of a fin would be the fins on a salamander that help them move through the water in an S-shaped pattern.
28) The world-wide decline of amphibian populations could be related to two of their prominent characteristics - Their skin is thin and must be kept moist and their eggs have no shell and must be kept moist. Global warming is reducing the amount of water that amphibians can use.
The Chordates - Amphibians
An amphibian is a vertebrate that with some exceptions lives in water as a larva and on land as an adult, breathes with lungs as an adult, has moist skin that contains mucus glands and lacks scales and claws.
Early amphibians evolved several adaptions that helped them live at least part of their lives out of water. Bones in the limbs and limb girdles of amphibians became stronger, permitting more efficient movement. Lungs and breathing tubes enabled amphibians to breathe air. The sternum or breastbone, formed a bony shield to support and protect internal organs, especially the lungs.
Early amphibians evolved several adaptions that helped them live at least part of their lives out of water. Bones in the limbs and limb girdles of amphibians became stronger, permitting more efficient movement. Lungs and breathing tubes enabled amphibians to breathe air. The sternum or breastbone, formed a bony shield to support and protect internal organs, especially the lungs.
- Feeding - Tadpoles are filter-feeders or herbivores that graze on algae. They turn into carnivores, however when they reach adulthood and their digestive system is completely altered.
- Respiration - Gas exchange occurs through the skin as well as the gills. Lungs replace gills when the creature reaches adulthood.
- Circulation - The circulation forms a double loop. The first loop carries oxygen-poor blood from the heart to the lungs and skin, and takes oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and skin back to the heart. The second loop transports oxygen rich blood from the heart to the rest of the body and oxygen poor blood from the body back to the heart.
- Excretion - Amphibians have kidneys that filter wastes from the blood.
- Reproduction - Many species of amphibians lay their eggs in the water and are fertilized externally.
- Movement - For the most part, amphibians move much like fish. Frogs and a few others have developed hind legs for jumping.
- Response - similar brain structure to a fish
Amphibians can be categorized in three groups. Salamanders, frogs/toads, and caecilians.
Salamanders - Most have four legs. Are carnivores. Live in moist woods and tunnels, under rotting logs and rocks. Some live in water their whole lives.
Frogs/Toads - They can jump. Frogs and toads lack tails as adults. Frogs typically live in and near water, while toads can survive in dry environments.
Caecilians - Least known member! Legless creatures. They often live in water or burrow in most soil and feed on small invertebrates such as termites.
The Chordates - Fishes
Fishes are aquatic vertebrates that are characterized by paired fins, scales and gills.
- Fins are used for movement
- Scales are used for protection
- Gills are for exchanging gases
Fishes were the first vertebrates to evolve. They did not arise directly from tunicates or lancelets, but fishes and nonvertebrate chordates probably did evolve from common invertebrate ancestors. During the course of their evolution, fishes underwent several important changes.
The evolution of jaws and the evolution of paired fins were important developments during the rise of the fishes!
The earliest fishes to appear in the fossil record were odd-looking, jaw-less creatures whose bodies were armored with bony plates.
The Devonian Period, which is often called the Age of fishes. Fish underwent a major evolution at this point. Jaw-less fishes emerged at this points. Unlike their ancestors, they had very little armor.
The evolution of jaws in early fishes accompanied the evolution of paired pectoral and pelvic fins. The fins were attached to structures of cartilage or bone that supported the fin. Paired fins gave fish greater movement and jaws gave them a wider diet.
Although the early jawed fishes soon disappeared they left beyond two groups that continue to evolve and survive today. One group - the ancestors of modern sharks and rays - evolved a skeleton made of strong, resilient cartilage. The other group evolved skeletons made of true bone. A sub-group of bony fishes called lobe-finned fishes have fleshy fins from which the limbs of chordates would later evolve.
Adaptions to aquatic life include various modes of feeding, specialized structures for gas exchange, and paired fins for locomotion.
- Feeding- every type of feeding from herbivores, carnivores and omnivores
- Respiration - Most fishes exchange gases using gills located on either side of the pharynx. The gills are made up of feathery threadlike structures called filaments. Each one contains a network of fine capillaries that provides a large surface area for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Fishes that exchange gases using gills do so by pulling oxygen-rich water in through their mouths, pumping it over their gill filaments, and then pushing oxygen-poor water out through the openings in the sides of the pharynx.
- Circulation - Fishes have closed circulatory systems with a heart that pumps blood around the body in a single loop from the heart to the gills from the gills to the rest of the body, from the gills to the rest of the body and back to the heart.
- Excretion - Like many other animals, most fishes rid themselves of nitrogenous wastes in the form of ammonia. Some wastes diffuse through the gills into the surrounding water. Others are removed by kidneys, which are excretory organs that filter wastes from the blood.
- Response - Most fishes have highly developed sense organs. Almost all fishes that are active in daylight have well-developed eyes and color vision that is as good as the average human. They have extraordinary senses of taste and smell an can detect motion although they cannot hear very well.
- Movement - Most fishes move by alternating contracting paired sets of muscles on either side of the backbone. This creates a series of S-shaped curves that propels the fish through the water.
- Reproduction - The eggs of fishes are fertilized either externally or internally, depending on the species. Those that hatch outside of the mother are called oviparous. Those who are "born alive" are called viviparous.
When you consider their basic internal structure, all living fishes can be classified into three groups, jaw-less fish, cartilaginous fishes and bony fishes.
Jaw-less fishes - They have no true teeth or jaws. Skeletons are made of fibers and cartilage and they lack vertebrae. They keep their notochord as adults. They are two types - lampreys and hagfishes.
Cartilaginous Fish- This group contains sharks and their relatives.
Bony Fishes- These fishes are made of hard, calcified tissue called bone. Almost all of them are ray-finned.
Some fishes spend most of their lives in the ocean but breed in fresh water. They are called anadromous. Others live in fresh water but migrate to salt water to breed. These fishes are called catadromous.
The Chordates - An Introduction
Fish, Amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals are all very different but are all members of the phylum Chordata.
Members of the phylum Chordata are called chordates. To be classified as a chordate and animals hash to have four key characteristics.
A chordate is an animal that has or had for some stage of life, a dorsal, hallow nerve cord; a notochord; pharyngeal pouches and a tail that extends beyond the anus.
The hollow nerve cord runs along the dorsal (back) part of the body. Nerves branch from this cord at regular intervals and connect to the internal organs, muscles, and sense organs.
The notochord is a long supporting rod that runs through the body just below the nerve cord. Most chordates have a notochord only when they are embryos
Pharyngeal pouches - These are paired structures in the throat (pharynx) region. In some chordates - such as fish and amphibians - slits develop that connect the pharyngeal pouches to the outside of the body. These slits may then develop into gills that are used for gas exchange.
At some point in their lives, all chordates have a tail that extends beyond the anus. The tail can contain bone and muscle and is used in swimming by many aquatic species.
Most Chordates are vertebrates. More than 99% of them are in the subphylum Vertebrata and are called vertebrates. A vertebrate is a chordate that has a strong supporting structure called a backbone. IN vertebrates, the dorsal, (hollow nerve cord) is called the spinal cord. The front end is in the brain. It IS the backbone and replaces the notochord in most developing vertebrates and is made of small individual segments called vertebra.
However, there are SOME nonvertebrate chordates. The two groups of nonvertebrate chordates are tunicates and lancelets. Both are soft-bodies marine organisms. They have a hollow nerve cord, a notochord, pharyngeal pouches, and a tail.
Tunicates are filter-feeding organisms that look a bit like tubes. Lancelets are small and fish-like creatures that live on the sandy ocean bottom.
Members of the phylum Chordata are called chordates. To be classified as a chordate and animals hash to have four key characteristics.
A chordate is an animal that has or had for some stage of life, a dorsal, hallow nerve cord; a notochord; pharyngeal pouches and a tail that extends beyond the anus.
The hollow nerve cord runs along the dorsal (back) part of the body. Nerves branch from this cord at regular intervals and connect to the internal organs, muscles, and sense organs.
The notochord is a long supporting rod that runs through the body just below the nerve cord. Most chordates have a notochord only when they are embryos
Pharyngeal pouches - These are paired structures in the throat (pharynx) region. In some chordates - such as fish and amphibians - slits develop that connect the pharyngeal pouches to the outside of the body. These slits may then develop into gills that are used for gas exchange.
At some point in their lives, all chordates have a tail that extends beyond the anus. The tail can contain bone and muscle and is used in swimming by many aquatic species.
Most Chordates are vertebrates. More than 99% of them are in the subphylum Vertebrata and are called vertebrates. A vertebrate is a chordate that has a strong supporting structure called a backbone. IN vertebrates, the dorsal, (hollow nerve cord) is called the spinal cord. The front end is in the brain. It IS the backbone and replaces the notochord in most developing vertebrates and is made of small individual segments called vertebra.
However, there are SOME nonvertebrate chordates. The two groups of nonvertebrate chordates are tunicates and lancelets. Both are soft-bodies marine organisms. They have a hollow nerve cord, a notochord, pharyngeal pouches, and a tail.
Tunicates are filter-feeding organisms that look a bit like tubes. Lancelets are small and fish-like creatures that live on the sandy ocean bottom.
Monday, March 7, 2011
Orange Cupcake Project
27 million people worldwide are victims of the monstrosity we know as human slavery, or trafficking. This is a tragedy against mankind. Men, women and children are held against their will and forced to work in uncomfortable conditions and often physically and sexually assaulted. They are stripped of their identities and treated worse than animals. Often food is withheld from them. How do people become victims of human slavery? Parents sell their children, people become indebted and are forced to become slaves, others are tricked, sometimes, it happens because of war, and other times people are kidnapped or have their lives threatened. There are a variety of causes to this great crime against humanity. No matter the cause, the victim in the incident would need to be rescued and healed from this traumatic event. Slavery is NEVER okay. This is because God created every one of his children equally and wonderfully. Any human who thinks they are more important or superior to another one of God's children is terribly mistaken and committing the sin of pride. Slavery has no place in this world. Unfortunately, people all over the globe are terribly confused about this. As a Christian, it is my job to spread God's truth. That's why I have to do this. My goal is to raise $3,333.33. I plan on doing this by selling cupcakes and orange clothing/accessory products. Why orange? Orange is the color of freedom. It's a color of possibility and determination. It's not the prettiest color, but it IS an honest color. It's stubborn and it doesn't give up. I plan on making headbands, t-shirts and bandannas that are orange and have the word "FREEDOM" in caps stenciled across the front. I'll give all the profits to charitable organizations dedicated to ending slavery. Updates will follow!
Friday, March 4, 2011
Social Security
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| IM CUTE. DONT STEAL FROM ME. |
In order to fix it, three things need to happen -
- Increase Revenue going into the Social Security Fund
- Decrease Benefits
- Keep the money CONTROLLED and going ONLY to the seniors and disabled people who NEED it. As in, it's not the goverment's checkbook. KEEP YOUR HANDS OFF MY SOCIAL SECURITY MONEY, LOSERS!
Obviously, some Congress people, for whatever reason, see issues with these simple steps. It's elementary, you morons.
Who's gonna be effected if we don't fix Social Security? Cute little kids like the ones in the above picture! Anyone who isn't gonna be retired by 2020. People who are gonna be paying INTO the failing system, yet not getting anything out of it.
Why do we have social security problems? Two reasons
- The Baby Boomers - Right after WWII ended, lots of soliders came home to their otherwise non-pregnant wives. You put the pieces together.
- Abortion - Because the darn baby boomers legalized abortion, the population has a huge lump in it and not very many kids are being born anymore. This means less people to pay into the system. This is really tough, because we have a HUGE lump of people to support. How is Gen Y supposed to take care of the Boomers, the BIGGEST age group when they majority of them were killed in the womb? ARGH! It's just not cool
The "decade" when the Boomers were the most impressionable was the 60s. GREAT. Jusssst great. The sixties were the "irresponsible and DANGEROUS" years. All we need is a bunch of crazy seniors who had a ton of abortions. Yup, that's ALL we need.
They dug a nice great pit, but they are all gonna die before they actually fall into it. We have to patch it up quick or we'll all die!
Wednesday, February 16, 2011
BIO VOCAB
Vascular Tissue - type of plant tissue specialized to conduct water
Roots - underground organ in plants that absorbs water and minerals
Leaves- photosynthetic organs that contain one or more bundles of vascular tissue
Stems - supporting structure that connects roots and leaves and carries water and nutrients between them
Nodes- point on a stem where a leaf is attached
Buds-plant structure containing undeveloped tissue that can produce new stems and leaves.
Pollen Cones-cone in gymnosperms that produces male gametophytes in the form of pollen grains
Seed Cones- cone that produces female gametophytes
Ovules-structure in seed cones in which female gametophytes
Pollen tubes-structure grown by a pollen grain; contains two haploid sperm nuclei
Sepal-outermost circle of flower parts that enclose a bud before it opens and protects the flower while it is developing.
Petal- brightly-colored structure just inside the sepals' attracts insects and other pollinators to a flower
Stamen- male part of the flower, made up of an anther and a filament
Filament- a long thin structure that supports an anther
Anther- flower structure in which haploid male gametophytes are produced
Carpel- innermost part of a flower that produces the female gametophytes
Ovary- in plants, a flower structure that contains one or more ovules from which female gametophytes are produced
Style- narrow stalk of the carpel in a flower
Stigma- sticky portion at the top of the style where pollen grains frequently land
Embryo sac- female gametophyte within the ovule of a flowering plant
Endosperm- food-rich tissue that nourishes a seedling as it grows
Double fertilization- fertilization in angiosperms i which two distinct fertilization events take place between the male and female gametophytes
Dormancy- period of time during which a plant embryo is alive but not growing
Germination-early growth stage of a plant embryo
Roots - underground organ in plants that absorbs water and minerals
Leaves- photosynthetic organs that contain one or more bundles of vascular tissue
Stems - supporting structure that connects roots and leaves and carries water and nutrients between them
Nodes- point on a stem where a leaf is attached
Buds-plant structure containing undeveloped tissue that can produce new stems and leaves.
Pollen Cones-cone in gymnosperms that produces male gametophytes in the form of pollen grains
Seed Cones- cone that produces female gametophytes
Ovules-structure in seed cones in which female gametophytes
Pollen tubes-structure grown by a pollen grain; contains two haploid sperm nuclei
Sepal-outermost circle of flower parts that enclose a bud before it opens and protects the flower while it is developing.
Petal- brightly-colored structure just inside the sepals' attracts insects and other pollinators to a flower
Stamen- male part of the flower, made up of an anther and a filament
Filament- a long thin structure that supports an anther
Anther- flower structure in which haploid male gametophytes are produced
Carpel- innermost part of a flower that produces the female gametophytes
Ovary- in plants, a flower structure that contains one or more ovules from which female gametophytes are produced
Style- narrow stalk of the carpel in a flower
Stigma- sticky portion at the top of the style where pollen grains frequently land
Embryo sac- female gametophyte within the ovule of a flowering plant
Endosperm- food-rich tissue that nourishes a seedling as it grows
Double fertilization- fertilization in angiosperms i which two distinct fertilization events take place between the male and female gametophytes
Dormancy- period of time during which a plant embryo is alive but not growing
Germination-early growth stage of a plant embryo
Pollination
After the gametophytes have developed, pollination occurs. Most gymnosperms and some angiosperms are win-pollinated by animals. These animals, mainly insects, birds and bats carry pollen from one flower to another. Because wind pollination is less efficient than animal pollination, wind-pollinated plants, such as the oak tree rely on favorable weather and sheer numbers to get pollen from one plant to another. Animal-pollinated plants have a variety of adaptions, such as bright colors and sweet nectar to attract animals. Animals have developed behaviors to help them find flowers. They have also evolved body shapes that enable them to reach nectar deep w/in certain flowers.
Insect pollination is adaptive because it increases the fitness of both organisms. It is beneficial to insects and other animals because it provides a dependable source of food. The food may take the form of pollen itself or the sugar-rich liquid called nectar. Plants also benefit because the insects take their pollen directly from flower to flower. Insect pollination is much more efficient than wind pollination, giving insect-pollinated plants a higher probability of reproductive success In fact, many plant biologists suggest that the angiosperms displaced the gymnosperms so throughly during the past 100 in part becaue of insect pollination.
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| Pollen on a Bee |
Long and Glorious Life Cycles of Angiosperms
Reproduction in angiosperms takes place within the flower. Following pollination and fertilization, the seeds develop inside protective structures.
The angiosperm life cycle begins when the mature sporophyte produces flowers. Each flower contains anthers and an ovary. Inside the anthers, the male part of the flower, each cell undergoes meiosis and produces four haploid spore cells. Each of these cells becomes a single pollen grain. The wall of each pollen grain thickens, protecting protecting the contents of the pollen grain from dryness and physical damage when it is released from the anther.
The nucleus of each pollen grain undergoes one mitotic division to produce two haploid nuclei. The pollen grain, which is the entire male gametophyte, usually tops growing until it is released from the anther and deposited on a stigma.
The ovary of the flower contains the ovules in which the female gametophyte develops. A single diploid cell goes through meiosis to produce eight nuclei. These eight nuclei and the surrounding membrane are called the embryo sac. The embryo sac, contained within the ovule, is the female gametophyte of a flowering plant. One of the eight nuclei, near the base of the gametophyte, is the egg nucleus, the female gamete. If fertilization takes place, this cell will become the zygote that grows into a new sporophyte plant.
The angiosperm life cycle begins when the mature sporophyte produces flowers. Each flower contains anthers and an ovary. Inside the anthers, the male part of the flower, each cell undergoes meiosis and produces four haploid spore cells. Each of these cells becomes a single pollen grain. The wall of each pollen grain thickens, protecting protecting the contents of the pollen grain from dryness and physical damage when it is released from the anther.
The nucleus of each pollen grain undergoes one mitotic division to produce two haploid nuclei. The pollen grain, which is the entire male gametophyte, usually tops growing until it is released from the anther and deposited on a stigma.
The ovary of the flower contains the ovules in which the female gametophyte develops. A single diploid cell goes through meiosis to produce eight nuclei. These eight nuclei and the surrounding membrane are called the embryo sac. The embryo sac, contained within the ovule, is the female gametophyte of a flowering plant. One of the eight nuclei, near the base of the gametophyte, is the egg nucleus, the female gamete. If fertilization takes place, this cell will become the zygote that grows into a new sporophyte plant.
The Marvelous Science of Girliness
Many people mistakenly believe that flowers and sunshine are simple things for nincompoops. Boy, are they ever wrong. The science of girliness is actually quite complex. Take the structure of a flower, for example.
Flowers are intricate reproductive organs that are composed of four kinds of specialized leaves. They are SEPALS, PETALS, STAMENS AND CARPELS.
Sepals and petals: The "sterile" leaves
The sepal is located in the outermost circle of floral parts. It is usually green and looks like your ordinary leaf. But do not be fooled! Sepals are anything but ordinary. They enclose the bud before it opens, and protect the flower while it develops. They do not produce reproductive cells so they are called sterile leaves, just like their neighbors, the petals! Petals are often brightly colored and are found located right inside the sepals. The petals work to attract insects and other pollinators to the flower.
Stamens and Carpels: The "happy couple" leaves
W/in the ring of petals are structures that produce the male and female gametophytes. A gametophyte is the haploid or gamete-producing phase of an organism. Haploid is a term used to refer to a cell that contains only a single set of chromosomes and therefore only a single set of genes. The male parts consist of an anther and a filament, which together make up a stamen. The filament is a long thing stalk that supports an anther.
An anther is an oval sac where meiosis takes place, producing haploid male gametophytes-- pollen grains. In most angiosperms, each flower has several stamens. If you run your hand on the anther of a flower, a yellow dust may stick to your skin. This is pollen which consists of thousands of of individual pollen grains.
Th intermost floral part is the carpels, aka pistils. They are the female part of the flower. Each carpel has a broad base forming an ovary which contains one or more ovules where female gametophytes are produced here.
The diameter of the pistils narrow into a stalk known as the style. At the top of the style is a sticky portion known as the stigma. This is where pollen grains usually land. Some flowers have several pistils fused together to form a compound carpel.
In conclusion: Flowers are very different and quite beautiful. A typical flower produces both male and female gametophyte. In some plants, however, male and female gametophyte are produced in separate flowers on the same individual. Corn, for example, has separate male and female flowers on the same plant. The tassel is a flower that produces male gametophytes and the silk is the style of a flower that contains the female gametophyte. In other cases many flowers grow together to form a composite structure that looks likes a single flower. A good example of this is the sunflower.
Flowers are intricate reproductive organs that are composed of four kinds of specialized leaves. They are SEPALS, PETALS, STAMENS AND CARPELS.
Sepals and petals: The "sterile" leaves
The sepal is located in the outermost circle of floral parts. It is usually green and looks like your ordinary leaf. But do not be fooled! Sepals are anything but ordinary. They enclose the bud before it opens, and protect the flower while it develops. They do not produce reproductive cells so they are called sterile leaves, just like their neighbors, the petals! Petals are often brightly colored and are found located right inside the sepals. The petals work to attract insects and other pollinators to the flower.
Stamens and Carpels: The "happy couple" leaves
W/in the ring of petals are structures that produce the male and female gametophytes. A gametophyte is the haploid or gamete-producing phase of an organism. Haploid is a term used to refer to a cell that contains only a single set of chromosomes and therefore only a single set of genes. The male parts consist of an anther and a filament, which together make up a stamen. The filament is a long thing stalk that supports an anther.
An anther is an oval sac where meiosis takes place, producing haploid male gametophytes-- pollen grains. In most angiosperms, each flower has several stamens. If you run your hand on the anther of a flower, a yellow dust may stick to your skin. This is pollen which consists of thousands of of individual pollen grains.
Th intermost floral part is the carpels, aka pistils. They are the female part of the flower. Each carpel has a broad base forming an ovary which contains one or more ovules where female gametophytes are produced here.
The diameter of the pistils narrow into a stalk known as the style. At the top of the style is a sticky portion known as the stigma. This is where pollen grains usually land. Some flowers have several pistils fused together to form a compound carpel.
In conclusion: Flowers are very different and quite beautiful. A typical flower produces both male and female gametophyte. In some plants, however, male and female gametophyte are produced in separate flowers on the same individual. Corn, for example, has separate male and female flowers on the same plant. The tassel is a flower that produces male gametophytes and the silk is the style of a flower that contains the female gametophyte. In other cases many flowers grow together to form a composite structure that looks likes a single flower. A good example of this is the sunflower.
Tuesday, January 11, 2011
T4 Bacteriophage
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| The red section is supposed to be a cut-out. Inside you can see green squiggles and that is supposed to be the DNA. |
Streptococcus Mutans
Streptococcus mutans is a type of bacteria called a pathogen. A pathogen is a type of disease producing agent. This particular pathogen causes tooth decay. It is also Gram-positive. This means that when a gram stain is applied to the bacteria, it appears purple. This is because of the peptidoglycan contained in the cell walls. The existence of peptidoglycan in the cell walls renders this type of bacteria a member of the kingdom Eubacteria. Streptococcus mutans’s appearance can be described as scattered and clumped chains of bead-like ovals. It falls under the bacilli shape category. It was first described by JK Clark in 1924 at St. Mary’s hospital in London. He reported that the type of bacteria most frequently found in cavities and most likely to causes tooth decay was Streptococcus mutans. Clark demonstrated that Streptococcus mutans is one of the most virulent decay-producing organisms. This pathogen is commonly found in the human mouth and is a significant contributor to tooth decay. Here’s how it works; sugars such as glucose, fructose, and lactose can be digested by S. mutans and produce lactic acid as an end product. This acid along with plaque is what eventually leads to dental decay. There have been many attempts to create a vaccine against this pathogen. However, no vaccines have been successful in humans. Scientists still have much work to do to fully understand this complex pathogen.
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